Abstract:
Much of the recent focus in shoe design and engineering has been on improving athletic performance.  Currently, this improvement has been manufactured in the form of “cushioned column systems” which are spring-like in design and placed under the heel of the shoe in place of a conventional heel counter.  Concerns have been raised over whether or not this design alteration has led to an increased incidence of ankle sprain. The purpose of this study was to examine the incidence of lateral ankle sprains in collegiate basketball players with regards to shoe design using a prospective cohort study.  Two hundred thirty (141 male, 89 female) basketball players (mean age 20.16 ±1.53 years) from 22 NCAA basketball programs (Division I-III) completed an online questionnaire regarding ankle sprain information and type of shoe worn (cushioned column and non-cushioned column).  The incidence of lateral ankle sprains and type of shoes worn were compared using a Chi-square analysis. Our results showed there was no significant difference in ankle sprain incidence between groups (x²=2.44, P=0.20, RR=1.47, CI=0.32-6.86).  The incidence of ankle sprains was 1.33 ankle sprains per 1000 exposures in the cushioned column group (CI=0.62-3.51) and 1.96 ankle sprains per 1000 exposures in the non cushioned column group (CI=0.51-4.22).

Abstract:
Limited passive hamstring flexibility may significantly affect running kinematics, performance, and injury risk.  Pre activity static straight leg raise (SLR) stretching is often used to gain passive hamstring flexibility.  The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of a single session passive hamstring stretch on kinematics of the pelvis, hip, and knee during the swing phase of running.  Sixteen control and 18 intervention recreational athletes performed pre and post treadmill running tests at 70% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate.  Fifteen seconds of late swing phase pelvic tilt, hip flexion, and knee extension angles were collected using a Vicon motion analysis system.  Right and left hamstrings of intervention participants were passively stretched 3 times for 30 seconds in random order immediately following the pre test.  The intervention was followed by a post test running session as previously described.  Control participants performed no stretching or movement in between running sessions.  Six two-way analyses of variance were conducted to determine joint angle differences between groups at maximum hip flexion and maximum knee extension with a significance level of P<0.008. Flexibility was significantly increased between the pre and post tests (P<0.001) in both groups.  Anterior pelvic tilt (P=0.40), hip flexion (P=0.13), and knee extension (P=0.80) at maximum hip flexion were similar between groups throughout testing.  Anterior pelvic tilt (P=0.41), hip flexion (P=0.64), and knee extension (P=0.62) at maximum knee extension were similar between groups throughout testing.  Males demonstrated more anterior pelvic tilt than females at maximum knee extension (P=0.001).  In conclusion, a single session of 3 SLR hamstring stretches without significant ROM increase did not significantly change pelvis, hip, and knee running kinematics.

Abstract:
The glenohumeral (GH) joint attains extreme ranges of motion, velocities and forces throughout the throwing motion often leading to altered GH ROM measurements and posterior shoulder tightness.  This tightness has been associated with pathologies such as  superior labral lesions, subacromial impingement and internal impingement in the throwing shoulder, providing a basis for investigation of preventative and corrective treatments to restore GH internal rotation. Several researchers have identified the importance of posterior capsule stretching in restoring flexibility and as a part of rehabilitation.  However, investigators have reported conflicting results regarding the effectiveness of current stretching protocols for internal rotation ROM and posterior shoulder motion.  Muscle energy technique (MET) is a manual therapy intervention that can be used to stretch or lengthen tight muscles and fascia, among other benefits.  Muscle energy technique requires the patient to create a corrective force by actively contracting against a precisely directed counterforce applied by the clinician.  MET has been relatively unexplored with only a few identified research studies.  Results of existing research support the use of MET for cervical, lumbar, and thoracic motion restrictions. However, little data are available detailing the effects of MET in the extremities.  The purpose of this study will be to determine if a single application of MET will result in greater GH internal rotation ROM and posterior shoulder flexibility in collegiate baseball players.

Abstract:
Deficiencies in scapular upward rotation and periscapular strength have been associated with various shoulder pathologies and decreased athletic performance. Therefore, proper periscapular strength and concomitant scapular upward rotation are important factors among overhead athletes, such as baseball players. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationships between lower trapezius and serratus anterior strength and the quantity of scapular upward rotation. Twenty-four professional baseball pitchers volunteered to participate in this study.  Scapular upward rotation was measured at 0°, 60°, 90°, and 120° of humeral elevation and lower trapezius and serratus anterior strength were measured isometrically. There was a moderate-good positive relationship between lower trapezius strength and scapular upward rotation at 90 degrees (r² = .56, P = .001) and 120 degrees (r² = .53, P = .001). The relationships between scapular upward rotation and serratus anterior strength were all poor. A thorough understanding of scapular motion and the muscles controlling this motion are critical in the prevention and treatment of shoulder injuries. The results of this study suggest that strengthening of the lower trapezius muscle should be considered as a preventative measure and/or during rehabilitation of pathologies, such as subacromial impingement and shoulder instability.

Abstract:
The use of the Both Sides Utilized® (BOSU) Balance Trainer has become increasingly popular among fitness and medical personnel.  Many fitness facilities, physical therapy clinics, and athletic training rooms routinely use this piece of equipment for strengthening, balance training, functional assessments, and rehabilitating various injuries.  However there is currently little data describing the effectiveness of this balance device.  Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine which side of the BOSU would generate a greater amount of tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, or medial gastrocnemius muscle activity using electromyography (EMG).  Twenty, healthy, collegiate male subjects participated (age = 21.4 ± 1.4 years; height = 179.4 ±  8.6 cm; mass = 80.0 ± 12.1 kg).  Each subject performed three single leg stance trials on each side of the BOSU.  The EMG data from these trials was compared to a maximal voluntary isometric contraction measure and represented as a mean ± standard deviation for both integrated and average EMG representations.  Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA; P < 0.05) yielded no significant findings when comparing EMG data between conditions.  In regard to ankle muscle activity, there is no reason to flip the BOSU for a more difficult training task.

Abstract:

Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the physiologic and perceptual responses to a 40-minute continuous functional exercise workout.  Ten men and ten women (21.2 + 2.4 and 21.0 + 1.5 years) completed a maximal oxygen uptake test, strength test and body composition analysis.  Subjects then participated in three familiarization sessions, during which they followed a videotaped routine that consisted of a series of functional resistance exercises performed in a continuous manner.  Subjects performed the same routine during a final session, during which VO2, VCO2, RER, RPE and heart rate were measured and blood samples were taken and analyzed for blood lactic acid concentration.  Descriptive statistics were calculated for RPE, RER, blood lactic acid concentration, and absolute and relative oxygen uptake and heart rate.  Caloric expenditure was calculated using VO2 and RER.  Independent t-tests were used to examine differences between men and women for oxygen consumption, weight lifted and energy expenditure during the workout.  Subjects’ mean VO2 was 27.8 ml.kg.min-1 (51% of VO2peak and 47.8% VO2R), a mean HR of 156 b.min-1 (83% of HRmax), and a mean RER of 0.91.  The mean RPE was 5.9 and the mean difference between pre- and post-lactic acid concentration was 2.5 mmol.L-1.  The mean total caloric expenditure was 289 kcal.  Men lifted significantly heavier weights and expended more total calories than women.  Caloric expenditure (kcal.kg.min-1), VO2 and weight lifted were similar between men and women when expressed relatively.  Performing dynamic functional exercises in a continuous manner resulted in energy expenditure values, but not relative VO2 values, that meet the American College of Sports Medicine recommendations.

Abstract:
Research supports the prediction of self-determination theory (SDT: Ryan & Deci, 2002), that psychological functioning, motivation, and well-being are influenced by the degree to which one’s needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are satisfied. Recently, Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) found that the balance of need satisfaction is critical. They showed, in a series of studies, that students who reported greater balance or consistency across the three needs indicated more positive well-being relative to those reporting greater variability in need satisfaction, even when possessing similar levels of overall need satisfaction. Given the potential theoretical and practical implications of their results, determining if the balance of needs satisfaction contributes to our understanding additional outcomes warrants attention. Thus, the purpose of this study was to test whether the balance of need satisfaction predicts motivational outcomes above and beyond the individual contributions of the three needs. High school athletes (N=264, 50% female) completed questionnaires assessing their perceived sport competence, autonomy, relatedness as well as their intrinsic motivation (IM).  Bivariate correlations among the needs and motivational outcomes were all in the expected direction. Importantly, the balance of need satisfaction scores negatively related to IM (r=-.40, p<.05). A hierarchical regression analysis, with the set of the three needs entered on Step 1 and the balance score entered on Step 2, provided the main test of our research question. Consistent with SDT, perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness together significantly predicted athletes’ IM (p < .01, R² = .375). However, balance scores were found to significantly add to the prediction above and beyond the independent contributions of the three needs (ΔR²=.075). The results support the basic predictions of SDT, but also highlight the importance of considering balanced need satisfaction as a predictor of achievement-related outcomes.

Abstract:
Travel and tourism is a major industry in the United States and internationally. Because it impacts regional development, local and national economies, and community employment rates, there is a need to understand the social and psychological forces and factors that motivate and satisfy individual travelers. The purpose of this study was to compare travel decisions between United States and international students at a Midwestern university based on Dann’s (1977) push and pull motivation factors.  This study utilized a modified travel motivation survey from previous research to indicate the importance of travel motivations based on the 39 push and 27 pull motivation factors.  The results indicated that the most important travel motivators were to have fun, see and experience a new destination, and to reduce stress. There were gender differences on 24 push and pull items with females rating all but viewing sporting events higher than males. When students in the United States were compared to international students, there were significant differences on 27 push and pull items. Respondents from the United States had higher means on a majority of the push factors with the exception of rediscovering myself. The findings of this study have implications for leisure and tourism service practitioners in that there are slight differences in travel motivation of college students in terms of gender and whether the student is domestic or international. Understanding these similarities and differences can impact tourism marketing to college students.

Abstract:
This paper examined the effect of coaching succession on subsequent team performance in Division I football.  Three categories of coaching successor were examined: whether an incoming coach was most recently an assistant coach from a different program, an assistant coach from the current program, or a head coach from a different program, in order to determine what effects, if any, coaching successor type had on subsequent team performance.  The results of this study demonstrate a significant relationship between the previous employment of a new coaching hire and subsequent team performance.  Outside successors, both assistant and head coaches, experienced far better results compared to inside successors.  As these findings contradicted previous work on managerial succession, a new theory, the Cyclical Regression Theory, was put forth to explain the nature of these results.